[ALBSA-Info] Religious freedoms in Albania, Greece and Macedonia

[Agron Alibali]

International Religious Freedom Report 
Released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor
October 2001

Albania: http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/index.cfm?docid=5757
Bosnia-Herzegovina:
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/index.cfm?docid=5570
Bulgaria: http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/index.cfm?docid=5578
Croatia: http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/index.cfm?docid=5608

_______________________________________

 
Albania

International Religious Freedom Report 
Released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor
October 2001


The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the Government
generally respects this right in practice.  

There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom during
the period covered by this report, and government policy continued to
contribute to the generally free practice of religion.  

The generally amicable relationship among the religions in society
contributed to religious freedom.    

The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the Government
in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human rights.

Section I.  Religious Demography

The country has a total land area of 11,100 square miles, and its
population is approximately 3,490,000.  It has a largely homogeneous ethnic
population, consisting of Ghegs in the north and Tosks in the south.  The
southern part of the country has ethnic Greek communities estimated at 3
percent of the population.  Other small minorities include the Roma,
Egyptian people (an ethnic group similar to the Roma but which does not
speak the Roma language), Vlachs, Macedonians, and Chams.

The majority of citizens are secular in orientation after decades of
rigidly enforced atheism under the Communist regime, which ended in 1990.
In spite of this secularism, most citizens traditionally associate
themselves with a religious group.  Albanians of Muslim background make up
the largest traditional religious group (roughly 65 to 70 percent of the
population) and are divided into two communities:  those associated with a
moderate form of Sunni Islam and those associated with the Bektashi school
(a particularly liberal form of Shi'a Sufism).  The country is the world
center of the Bektashi school, which moved from Turkey to Albania in 1925
after the revolution of Ataturk.  Bektashis are concentrated mainly in
central and southern regions of the country and claim that 45 percent of
the country's Muslims belong to their school. 

The Orthodox Autocephalous Church of Albania (referred to as Orthodox) and
the Roman Catholic Church are the other large denominations.  An estimated
20 to 30 percent of the population belong to communities that are
traditionally Albanian Orthodox, and 10 percent are associated with Roman
Catholicism.  The Orthodox Church became independent from Constantinople's
authority in 1929 but was not recognized as autocephalous, or independent,
until 1937.  The Church's 1954 statute states that all its archbishops must
be of Albanian citizenship.  However, the current archbishop is a Greek
citizen, because there are no Albanian clerics who meet the Orthodox
requirement that higher clergy must be celibate.

The Muslims are concentrated mostly in the middle of the country and
somewhat in the south; the Orthodox are concentrated mainly in the south,
and Catholics in the north of the country; however, this division is not
strict.  The Greek minority, concentrated in the south, belongs to the
Orthodox Church.  There are no data available on active participation in
formal religious services, but unofficial sources state that 30 to 40
percent of the population practice a religion.  Foreign clergy, including
Muslim clerics, Christian and Baha'i missionaries, members of Jehovah's
Witnesses, Mormons, and many others freely carry out religious activities.

According to updated data provided by the State Committee on Cults during
the reporting period, there are 12 different Muslim societies and groups
with some 60 to 70 representatives in the country.  There are 50 Christian
societies and groups and more than 1,100 missionaries representing
Christian or Baha'i organizations.  The largest foreign missionary groups
are American, British, Italian, Greek, and Arab.

Section II.  Status of Religious Freedom

Legal/Policy Framework 

The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the Government
generally respects this right in practice.  According to the 1998
Constitution, there is no official religion and all religions are equal.
However, the predominant religious communities (Muslim, Orthodox, and Roman
Catholic) function as juridical persons and enjoy a greater social
recognition and status based on their historical presence in the country.
All registered religious groups have the right to hold bank accounts and to
own property and buildings.  Official holidays include religious holidays
from all three predominant faiths.

Religious movements--with the exception of the three de facto recognized
religions--can acquire the official status of a juridical person only by
registering under the Law on Associations, which recognizes the status of a
nonprofit association irrespective of whether the organization has a
cultural, recreational, religious, or humanitarian character.  The
Government does not require registration or licensing of religious groups;
however, the State Committee on Cults, founded in September 1999, is
currently registering all foreign religious organizations.  No groups
reported difficulties registering during the period covered by this report. 

The State Committee on Cults, created by executive decision and based on
the Constitution, is charged with regulating the relations between the
State and religious communities.  The Committee recognizes the equality of
religious communities and respects their independence.  The Committee works
to protect freedom of religion and to promote interreligious development,
cooperation, and understanding.  It organized seminars in December 2000 and
February 2001 to discuss religious tolerance.  The Committee claims that
registration facilitates the granting of residence permits by police to
foreign employees of various religious organizations; however, some foreign
religious organizations have complained that obtaining registration has not
made gaining residence permits any less cumbersome administratively.  There
is no law or regulation that forces religious organizations to register
with the Committee.  There is no law on religious communities, although one
is mandated by the new Constitution.  Most religious communities recognize
the need for such a law to clarify their rights and responsibilities and
relationship to the Government.  The Committee has shown a willingness to
act as a mechanism for creation and passage of such a law; however, no
movement on the issue was made during the period covered by this report. 

Restrictions on Religious Freedom 

The country is a secular state and religion is not taught in public
schools.  According to official figures, there are 29 religious schools in
the country with approximately 2,745 students.  The State Committee on
Cults has the right to approve the curricula of religious schools.
Students are not allowed to demonstrate their religious affiliations in
public schools.  In one recent case, the Government prohibited three female
students from wearing headscarves in a public school.  No restriction is
imposed on families regarding the way they raise their children with
respect to religious practices.

In 1967 the Communists banned all religious practices and expropriated the
property of the established Islamic, Orthodox, and Catholic Churches.  The
Government has not yet returned all the properties and religious objects
under its control that were confiscated under the Communist regime.  In
cases where religious buildings were returned, the Government often failed
to return the land that surrounds the buildings, sometimes due to
redevelopment claims by private individuals who began farming it or using
it for other purposes.  The Government does not have the resources to
compensate churches adequately for the extensive damage many religious
properties suffered.  Although it recently recovered some confiscated
property, including one large parcel of land near Tirana's main square, the
Orthodox Church has complained that it had difficulty in recovering some
religious icons for restoration and safekeeping.  

The Albanian Evangelical Alliance, an association of more than 100
Protestant churches throughout the country, complained that it encountered
administrative obstacles to building churches, accessing the media, and
receiving exemptions from customs duties.  The growing evangelical
community continues to seek official recognition and participation in the
religious affairs section of the Council of Ministers. 

There were no reports of religious detainees or prisoners.

Forced Religious Conversion

There were no reports of forced religious conversion, including of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the United
States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to be
returned to the United States.

Section III.  Societal Attitudes 

Relations among the various religious groups are generally amicable, and
tolerance is widespread.  Society is largely secular.  Intermarriage among
religious groups is extremely common.  There are amicable relations between
the three main religions in the country, and religious communities take
pride in the tolerance and understanding that prevails among them. 

The Archbishop of the country's Orthodox Church has noted incidents in
which the Orthodox and their churches or other buildings have been the
targets of vandalism.  However, he concluded that the problem was largely
due to the country's weak public order.  There were no new incidents of
vandalism reported during the period covered by this report.  Members of
the ethnic Greek minority as well as ethnic Albanian and Greek members of
the Orthodox Church left the country in large numbers between 1990 and
1991, with another large exodus between 1997 and 1998 because of the lack
of security and poor economic prospects. Ethnic Greek Albanians, among
others, continue to leave the country in search of employment and/or
permanent residence elsewhere. 

Section IV.  U.S. Government Policy 

The U.S. Government has numerous initiatives to foster the development of
human rights, democracy, and the rule of law in the country, and to further
religious freedom and tolerance.  The U.S. Embassy periodically has urged
the Government to return church lands to the denominations that lost them
under Communist rule.  Embassy officers, including the Ambassador, meet
frequently (both in formal office calls and at representational events)
with the heads of the major religious communities in the country.  The U.S.
Embassy has been active in urging tolerance and moderation on the part of
the Government's Committee on Cults.

Greece

International Religious Freedom Report 
Released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor
October 2001


The Constitution establishes the Eastern Orthodox Church of Christ (Greek
Orthodoxy) as the "prevailing" religion, but also provides for the right of
all citizens to practice the religion of their choice; however, while the
Government generally respects this right, non-Orthodox groups sometimes
face administrative obstacles or encounter legal restrictions on religious
practice. The Constitution prohibits proselytizing and stipulates that no
rite of worship may disturb public order or offend moral principles.

Overall, leaders of minority religions noted a general improvement in
government tolerance during the period covered by this report, citing fewer
detentions for proselytizing; the conscientious objector law; and an
effective, well-run Ombudsman's office, which successfully handled an
increasing number of cases. 

The generally amicable relationship among religions in society contributed
to religious freedom. Greeks tend to link religious affiliation very
closely to ethnicity. In the minds of many Greeks, an ethnic Greek is also
Orthodox Christian. Non-Orthodox citizens have complained of being treated
with suspicion or told that they were not truly Greek when they revealed
their religious affiliation. The Government's decision in the summer of
2000 to remove a notation of religious affiliation on national identity
cards sparked a national debate, which is still continuing, on the role of
the Church in Greek society.

The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the Government
in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human rights.
U.S. Embassy officers meet regularly with working-level officials
responsible for religious affairs in the Ministries of Foreign Affairs and
Education and Religious Affairs. Officers from the U.S. Embassy and the
Consulate General in Thessaloniki also meet regularly with representatives
of various religious groups, including the Greek Orthodox Church, and the
Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and Islamic communities.

Section I. Religious Demography 


The country has a total land area of 81,934.74 square miles and its
population is approximately 10.9 million. Approximately 94 to 97 percent of
the population identify themselves at least nominally with the Greek
Orthodox faith. There are approximately 500,000 to 800,000 Old Calendarists
throughout the country. With the exception of the Muslim community (some of
whose rights and privileges as well as related government obligations are
covered by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne), the Government does not keep
statistics on the size of religious groups; and the 2001 census did not ask
for religious affiliation. Ethnic Greeks account for a sizeable percentage
of most non-Orthodox religions. The balance of the population is composed
of Muslims (officially estimated at 98,000, though some Muslims claim up to
130,000 to 140,000 countrywide); accurate figures for other religious
groups are not available. Members of Jehovah's Witnesses are estimated at
50,000; Catholics at 50,000; Protestants, including evangelicals, at
30,000; Jews at 5,000; and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
(Mormons) at 300. Scientologists claim 12,000 members, a figure observers
believe to be high. The Jewish community numbers approximately 5,000
adherents; the majority are Greek citizens and live in the Athens and
Thessaloniki regions. Approximately 250 members of the Baha'i Faith are
scattered throughout the country, the majority of whom are Greek citizens
of non-Greek ethnicity. There are also small populations of Anglicans,
Baptists, and nondenominational Christians. There is no official or
unofficial estimate of atheists.

The majority of noncitizen residents are not Greek Orthodox. The largest of
these groups is the Albanians (approximately 700,000 including legal and
illegal residents); of them, a few are Orthodox and Roman Catholics, but
the majority are nonreligious.


Greek Catholics reside particularly in Athens and on the islands of Syros,
Tinos, Naxos, and Corfu, as well as in the cities of Thessaloniki and
Patras. Immigrants from the Philippines and Poland also practice
Catholicism. The Bishop of Athens heads the Roman Catholic Holy Synod. 

Some religious groups, such as the evangelicals and Jehovah's Witnesses,
consist almost entirely of ethnic Greeks. Other groups, such as the Church
of Jesus of Latter-day Saints and Anglicans, consist of an approximately
equal number of ethnic Greeks and non-Greeks. 

The Muslim population, concentrated in western Thrace with small
communities in Rhodes, Kos, and Athens, is composed mainly of ethnic Turks
but also includes Pomaks and Roma. 

Scientologists, most of whom are located in the Athens area, practice their
faith through a registered nonprofit philosophical organization. 

Foreign Missionary groups are active in the country, including Protestants
and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints; the latter states that
it has approximately 80 missionaries in the country each year, for
approximately 2-year terms.

Section II: Status of Religious Freedom 

Legal/Policy Framework

The Constitution establishes the Eastern Orthodox Church of Christ (Greek
Orthodoxy) as the prevailing religion, but also provides for the right of
all citizens to practice the religion of their choice; however, while the
Government generally respects this right, non-Orthodox groups sometimes
face administrative obstacles, or encounter legal restrictions on religious
practice. The Constitution prohibits proselytizing and stipulates that no
rite of worship may disturb public order or offend moral principles. The
Orthodox Church wields significant political and economic influence. The
Government, under the direction of the Ministry of Education and Religion,
provides some financial support by, for example, paying for the salaries
and religious training of clergy, and financing the construction and
maintenance of Orthodox Church buildings.

The Orthodox Church and the Jewish and Muslim religions are the only groups
considered by law to be a "legal person of public law." Other religions are
considered "legal persons of private law." In practice the primary
distinction is that the establishment of "houses of prayer" of religions
other than the Orthodox Church, Judaism, or Islam is regulated by the
general provisions of the Civil Code regarding corporations. For example,
these religions cannot, as religious entities, own property; the property
must belong to a specifically created legal entity rather than to the
church itself. In practice this places an additional legal and
administrative burden on non-Orthodox religious community organizations,
although in most cases this process has been handled routinely. Members of
minority religious groups that are classified as private entities also
cannot be represented in court as religious entities and cannot will or
inherit property as a religious entity. In July 1999, the Parliament passed
a law extending legal recognition to Catholic churches and related entities
established prior to 1946. By virtue of the Orthodox Church's status as the
"prevailing" religion, the Government recognizes the Orthodox Church's
cannon law (the official statutes of the Church). However, the Catholic
Church unsuccessfully has sought government recognition of its canon law
since 1999. 

Two laws from the 1930's require recognized or "known" religious groups to
obtain "house of prayer" permits from the Ministry of Education and
Religion in order to open houses of worship. By law the Ministry may base
its decision to issue permits on the opinion of the local Orthodox bishop.
No formal mechanism exists to gain recognition as a known religion, but
Ministry officials state that they no longer obtain the opinion of the
local Orthodox bishop when considering house of prayer permit applications.
According to the Ministry's officials, applications for additional houses
of prayer are numerous and are approved routinely; however, in October 2000
the Ministry denied the Scientologists of Greece their application for
recognition and a house of prayer permit on the grounds that Scientology
"is not a religion." The only recent application for recognition as a known
religion at the Ministry was submitted in February 2000 by the
Scientologists of Greece. Although the deadline mandated by law for
processing the applications is 3 months, it took the Ministry until October
2000 to decide that it would not recognize the Scientologist community as
an "official" religion. The Church of Scientology appealed the decision
with the Council of State in December 2000 and the case will be heard in
December 2001. 

Leaders of some non-Orthodox religious groups claimed that all taxes on
religious organizations were discriminatory, even those that the Orthodox
Church has to pay, since the Government subsidizes the Orthodox Church,
while other groups are self-supporting. The Government also pays the
salaries of the two official Muslim religious leaders ("muftis") in western
Thrace and provides them with official vehicles.

The 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, which is still in force, gives Muslims in
western Thrace the right to maintain social and charitable organizations
("wakfs") and provides for muftis (Islamic judges and religious leaders
with limited civic responsibilities) to render religious judicial services.

The Treaty of Lausanne provides that the Muslim minority has the right to
Turkish-language education, with a reciprocal entitlement for the Greek
minority in Istanbul (now reduced to approximately 3,000 persons). Western
Thrace has both Koranic and secular Turkish-language schools. In the past,
government disputes with Turkey over teachers and textbooks had caused
these secular schools serious problems in obtaining faculty and teaching
materials in sufficient number and quality; however, this is no longer a
problem. In January 2000, 19 new Turkish-language textbooks approved
jointly by the Governments of Greece and Turkey were distributed in the
schools, the first such distribution since 1974. There were no complaints
during the period covered by this report that the Government tried to
prevent Turkish teachers (who serve under a 1952 reciprocal educational
protocol) from performing their duties. Approximately 8,000 Muslim children
attended Turkish-language public schools and an additional 150 attended two
bilingual middle schools with a religious curriculum. Approximately 600
Muslim students attended Turkish-language secondary schools, and
approximately 1,600 Muslim students attended Greek-language secondary
schools. Some Muslims, especially in western Thrace, reportedly attended
high school in Turkey; places in Turkish language secondary schools are no
longer assigned by lottery, as the number of those wanting to attend has
been less than the places available. In 1999 the Government instituted a
European Union-funded program for teaching Greek as a second language to
Muslim children, primarily in the Greek-language schools, to improve their
academic performance and chances of obtaining post-secondary education in
Greece.

Government incentives encourage Muslim and Christian educators to reside
and teach in isolated villages. However, in August 1999, the Ministry of
Education reformed the hiring system for teachers, which previously was
based on seniority and prior service as a temporary teacher. As a result,
Christian educators lost the incentive to reside and teach temporarily in
isolated and border villages, which in the past secured priority in hiring.
However, teachers and civil servants in border areas continue to receive a
special allowance and pay lower taxes. 

The law permits the Minister of Education to give special consideration to
Muslims for admission to universities and technical institutes. The law
requires universities and technical institutes to set aside places for
Muslim students each year. 

Restrictions on Religious Freedom

On October 17, 2000, the Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs
rejected the application of the Scientologists of Greece for recognition
and a house of prayer permit on the grounds that Scientology "is not a
religion." The Scientologists had reapplied for a house of prayer permit in
late February 2000 in a step toward gaining recognition as a religion.
According to the president of the Greek Scientologists, the group chose
previously to register as a philosophical organization because legal
counsel advised that the Government would not recognize Scientology as a
religion. The Scientologists appealed the ministry decision with the
Council of State and the case is scheduled to be heard in December 2001.

Minority religious groups have requested that the Government abolish laws
regulating house of prayer permits, which are required in order to open
houses of worship. Many provisions of these laws are not applied in
practice, but local police still have the authority to bring minority
churches to court that operate or build places of worship without a permit.
On December 12, 2000, in Thessaloniki, 16 churches charged with operating
without a house of prayer permit were acquitted.

Several religious denominations reported difficulties in dealing with the
authorities on a variety of administrative matters. Privileges and legal
prerogatives granted to the Greek Orthodox Church are not extended
routinely to other recognized religions. The non-Greek Orthodox churches
must make separate and lengthy applications to government authorities on
such matters as gaining permission to move places of worship to larger
facilities. In contrast Greek Orthodox officials have an institutionalized
link between the church hierarchy and the Ministry of Education and
Religion to handle administrative matters.

Non-Orthodox citizens have claimed that they face career limits within the
military, police, and fire-fighting forces, and the civil service, due to
their religions. In the military, generally only members of the Greek
Orthodox faith become officers, leading some members of other faiths to
declare themselves Orthodox. Few Muslim officers have advanced to the rank
of reserve officer, and there were reports of pressure exerted on Greek
Orthodox military personnel not to marry in the religious ceremony of their
non-Orthodox partner, lest they be passed over for promotion. 

The percentage of Muslims employed in the public sector and in state-owned
industries and corporations is disproportionately lower than the percentage
of Muslims in the population, which many observers claim is due to the
Greek language barrier, not to religious discrimination. In Xanthi and
Komotini, while Muslims hold seats on the prefectural and town councils,
there are no Muslims among regular employees of the prefecture. Muslims in
western Thrace claim that they are hired only for lower level, part-time
work. According to the Government, lack of fluency in written and spoken
Greek and the need for university degrees for high-level positions limit
the number of Muslims eligible for government jobs.

Economically, the Muslim minority in Thrace lags behind the rest of the
population. Since 1998, there have been no claims of discriminatory denial
of Muslim applications for business licenses, tractor ownership, or
property construction. In fact, Muslims and Christians in Thrace commended
the Government for the basic public services (electricity, water, and
telephone) provided to Muslim villages in recent years. 

Unlike in the past, there were no reports during the period covered by this
report of assertions by Muslim leaders that the Government routinely
withheld permission from Muslims seeking to change their legal residence,
which determines where they vote, from rural to urban communities within
western Thrace or from elsewhere in Greece to Thrace. 

Several religious denominations, including foreign Protestants and Mormons,
reported difficulty in renewing the visas of their non-European Union
citizen ministers because the Government does not have a distinct religious
workers' visa category. As part of new obligations under the Schengen
Treaty and the Treaty of Amsterdam, all non-European Union citizens face a
more restrictive visa and residence regime than they did in the past. By
the end of the period covered by this report, no progress had been made on
issuing visas for foreign clergy to perform their religious work in Greece. 

The approximately 10,000 member Muslim community in Athens (composed
primarily of economic migrants from Thrace, Pakistan, Iran, and Iraq) is
without its own mosque or any state-appointed cleric to officiate at
various religious functions, including funerals. Members of the Muslim
community often transport their deceased back to Thrace for religious
burials. In June 2000, the Parliament approved a bill allowing construction
of the first Islamic cultural center and mosque in the Athens area;
however, construction had not started by the end of the period covered by
this report. According to official sources, a total of 287 mosques operate
freely in western Thrace and on the islands of Rhodes and Kos.

Differences remain within the Muslim community and between segments of the
community and the Government over the means of selecting muftis. Under a
1991 law, the Government appointed two muftis and one assistant mufti, all
residents in Thrace. The appointments to 10-year terms were based on the
recommendations of a committee of Muslim notables selected by the
Government. The Government argued that it must appoint the muftis, because
in addition to religious duties, they perform judicial functions in many
civil and domestic matters under Muslim religious law, for which the State
pays them. In January 2001, the mufti from Komotini was re-appointed for
another 10-year term and in May 2001 the mufti from Xanthi also was
re-appointed. Some Muslims accept the authority of the two
government-appointed muftis; other Muslims, backed by Turkey, have
"elected" two muftis to serve their communities (although there is no
established procedure or practice for "election"). The Government has
prosecuted "elected" muftis for usurping authority.

Controversy between the Muslim community and the Government also continued
over the management and self-government of the "wakfs" (Muslim charitable
organizations), particularly in regards to the appointment of officials as
well as the degree and type of administrative control. A 1980 law placed
the administration of the wakfs in the hands of the appointed muftis and
their representatives. In response to objections from some Muslims that
this arrangement weakened the financial autonomy of the wakfs and violated
the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne, a 1996 presidential decree put the
wakfs under the administration of a committee for 3 years as an interim
measure pending resolution of outstanding problems. The interim period was
extended in 1999. At the end of the period covered by this report, the
Government was preparing a draft bill that would permit Muslims to elect
their own administrative committee for each municipality. 

In the past, Muslim activists have complained that the Government regularly
lodges tax liens against the wakfs, although they are tax-free foundations
in theory. Under a national land and property registry law that came into
full effect in January 1999, the wakfs, along with all property holders,
must register all of their property with the Government. The law permits
the Government to seize any property that the owners are not able to
document; there are built-in reporting and appeals procedures. The wakfs
were established in 1560; however, due to the destruction of files during
the two world wars, the wakfs are unable to document ownership of much of
their property. They have not registered the property, so they cannot pay
assessed taxes. The Government had not sought to enforce either the
assessments or the registration requirement by the end of the period
covered by this report.

Evangelical parishes are located throughout the country. Members of
missionary faiths report having difficulties with harassment and police
detention due to anti-proselytizing laws. Church officials express concern
that anti-proselytizing laws remain on the books, although such laws no
longer hinder their ministering to the poor and to children. 

During the period covered by this report, there were no further assertions
that the municipality in Thessaloniki and in some villages refused to
record the conversion of former Orthodox believers to other religions.

In the summer of 2000, the Government decided to remove the notation of
religious affiliation on national identity cards. This decision sparked a
national debate, which is still continuing, on the role of the Church in
Greek society. 

In January 1998, a law providing an alternative form of mandatory national
service for conscientious objectors (for religious and ideological reasons)
took effect. It provides that conscientious objectors may work in state
hospitals or municipal services for 36 months, in lieu of mandatory
military service. Conscientious objector groups generally characterized the
legislation as a "positive first step" but criticized the 36-month
alternative service term, which is double the regular 18-month period of
military service. Since January 1998, all members of Jehovah's Witnesses
(both clergy and laymen) who wished to submit applications for alternative
nonmilitary service have been permitted to do so. There were 18 religiously
based conscientious objector cases still pending resolution at the end of
the reporting period. These cases pertain to individuals who were in the
process of contesting a prison term for refusing to serve in the military
and whose cases were not covered by the 1998 law.

A 1939 law prohibits the functioning of private schools in buildings owned
by non-Orthodox religious foundations; however, this law is not enforced in
practice. 

Religious instruction in Orthodoxy in public, primary, and secondary
schools is mandatory for all Greek Orthodox students. Non-Orthodox students
are exempt from this requirement. However, members of Jehovah's Witnesses
have reported some instances of discrimination related to attendance at
religious education classes or other celebrations of religious or
nationalistic character. Members of the Muslim community in Athens are
lobbying for Islamic religious instruction for their children. The
neighborhood schools offer no alternative supervision for the children
during the period of religious instruction. The community has complained
that this forces the parents to have their children attend Orthodox
religious instruction by default. 

In Thessaloniki in late 1999, the Government Tax Office refused to
recognize the Jehovah Witnesses as a non-profit association (Evangelicals
and Baha'is are considered non-profit associations) and imposed an
inheritance tax for property willed to them. The groups appealed the
decision in 2000; the Court of Appeals wrote off the imposed tax in April
2001.


Abuses of Freedom of Religion

Church leaders report that their permanent members (nonmissionaries) do not
encounter discriminatory treatment. However, police occasionally detained
Mormons and members of Jehovah's Witnesses (on average once every 2 weeks)
after receiving complaints that the individuals were engaged in
proselytizing. In most cases, these individuals were held for several hours
at a police station and then released with no charges filed. Many reported
that they were not allowed to call their lawyers and that they were abused
verbally by police officers for their religious beliefs. There were no
proselytizing-related court cases during the period covered by this report.

Some Muslims accept the authority of the two Government-appointed muftis;
other Muslims, backed by Turkey, have "elected" two muftis to serve their
communities.

The Government has convicted one of the elected muftis 14 times in 5 years
for usurping the authority of the official mufti. All of the respective
sentences remained suspended pending appeal at the end of the period
covered by this report. The other elected mufti, who was convicted in 1991
of usurping the authority of the official mufti, appealed to the European
Court of Human Rights. In December 1999, the court ruled that the
conviction violated his freedom of religion and self-expression, but it did
not rule on the question of his legal status as mufti.

There were no reports of religious prisoners or detainees apart from the
problems of temporary police detention experienced by Mormons and members
of Jehovah's Witnesses.

Forced Religious Conversion 

There were no reports of forced religious conversion, including of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the United
States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to be
returned to the United States.

Improvements in Freedom of Religion

Overall, leaders of minority religions noted a general improvement in
government tolerance during the period covered by this report, citing fewer
detentions for proselytizing, the conscientious objector law, and an
effective, well-run Ombudsman's office, which successfully handled an
increasing number of cases related to religious freedom. 

Section III. Societal Attitudes

Greeks tend to link religious affiliation very closely to ethnicity. Many
attribute the preservation of Greek national identity to the actions of the
Greek Orthodox Church during approximately 400 years of Ottoman rule and
the subsequent nation building period. The Church wields significant
social, political, and economic influence, and it owns a considerable,
although undetermined, amount of property.

In the minds of many Greeks, an ethnic Greek is also an Orthodox Christian.
Non-Orthodox citizens have complained of being treated with suspicion or
told that they were not truly Greek when they revealed their religious
affiliation. 

Members of minority faiths have reported incidents of societal
discrimination, such as local bishops warning parishioners not to visit
clergy or members of minority faiths and neighbors, and requesting that the
police arrest missionaries for proselytizing. However, with the exception
of the Muslim minority of western Thrace, most members of minority faiths
consider themselves satisfactorily integrated into society. Organized
official interaction between religious communities is infrequent.

Some non-Orthodox religious communities believe that they have been unable
to communicate with officials of the Orthodox Church and claim that the
attitude of the Orthodox Church toward their faiths has increased social
intolerance toward their religions. The Orthodox Church has issued a list
of practices and religious groups, including members of Jehovah's
Witnesses, Evangelical Protestants, Scientologists, Mormons, Baha'is, and
others, which it believes to be sacrilegious. Officials of the Orthodox
Church have acknowledged that they refuse to enter into dialog with
religious groups considered harmful to Greek Orthodox worshipers; church
leaders instruct Orthodox Greeks to shun members of these faiths. 

In October 1999, a rededication of a synagogue in Hania, Crete as a house
of prayer and a cultural center was marred by public criticism of the event
by the regional governor. However, the Minister of National Education and
Religion, and other government and Greek Orthodox officials, lent their
support to the rededication. A new Jewish museum opened in Thessaloniki in
early March 2001 and was officially inaugurated by the Jewish community in
Thessaloniki and the Greek authorities in May 2001. A temporary Anne Frank
exhibition was displayed in Thessaloniki in April 2001.

Conservative Orthodox clerics protested Pope John Paul II's May 4 to 5,
2001, visit to the country; however, the Government distanced itself from
these extremists, as did Archbishop Christodoulos and most members of the
Greek Orthodox Church. 

The Government's decision in 2000 to remove religious affiliation from
national identity cards led to a national debate. The issue led Archbishop
Christodoulos to organize religious protest rallies in Thessaloniki and
Athens in June 2000. Both demonstrations drew over 100,000 supporters.
Archbishop Christodoulos vociferously criticized the Government and
launched a campaign to collect signatures to petition the Government to
allow religious affiliation as an option on national identity cards. The
Orthodox Church alleges that it has collected 3 million signatures. In
March 2001, Archbishop Christodoulos blamed "the Jews" for the government's
decision to remove notation of religious affiliation on national identity
cards. The Government distanced itself from Christodoulos' statement. 

In April 2001, vandals desecrated the Jewish Cemetery of Trikala. 

Section IV. U.S. Government Policy

The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the Government
in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human rights.
Embassy officers meet regularly with working-level officials responsible
for religious affairs in the Ministries of Foreign Affairs and Education
and Religious Affairs. The Ambassador and Political Counselor discussed
religious freedom with senior government officials and religious leaders.
The U.S. Embassy also regularly discusses religious freedom issues in
contacts with other government officials, including mayors, regional
leaders, and Members of Parliament. Officers from the Embassy and the
Consulate General in Thessaloniki meet regularly with representatives of
various religious groups, including the Greek Orthodox Church, and the
Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and Islamic communities. In March 2001, in
the first visit by a U.S. Ambassador to Thrace in 34 years, the Ambassador
met with leaders of the Muslim and Christian communities. The U.S. Embassy
investigates every complaint of religious discrimination brought to its
attention.

Employees of the U.S. Embassy's consular section have helped Bible Baptist
clergy get permission to visit all prisoners, not only those of the Baptist
faith. The consular section also has actively followed issues relating to
religious workers' visas and property taxes. 

The U.S. Embassy and Consulate promote and support initiatives related to
religious freedom. For example, Embassy staff has gathered leaders of the
religious minority groups in Athens together for representational dinners.
Participants noted the uniqueness and the value of such gatherings in Greece.


The Ambassador has been an open supporter of the Jewish Museum and the
Jewish community in general. During an official visit to Rhodes, he visited
the Jewish and Muslim communities. In April 2001, the Consul General and
the Deputy Chief of Mission attended the opening of the Anne Frank
exhibition displayed in Thessaloniki.

The Ambassador and embassy officials regularly visit religious sites
throughout the country, invite representatives of all faiths to social
events, and meet with individuals of all faiths.  


_________________________________________

Macedonia, Former Yugoslav Republic of

International Religious Freedom Report 
Released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor
October 2001

The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the Government
generally respects this right in practice. 


There was no overall change in the status of respect for religious freedom
during the period covered by this report; however, beginning in early
spring of 2001, an armed conflict began between the Government and armed
ethnic Albanian extremists.  While religion has not been a focus of the
conflict, both sides have occasionally targeted religious buildings due to
the linkage between religion and ethnicity in the country.  The law places
some limits on religious practice by restricting the establishments of
places of worship and restricting where contributions may be made.

In 2000 both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among the various religious communities contributed to the free practice of
religion.  However, the religious communities often reflect an ethnic
identity as well, and during 2001 societal tensions increased. 
  
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the Government
in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human rights.

Section I.  Religious Demography

The country has a total area of 9,781 square miles and its population is
approximately 2 million.  The country has three major religions.
Nominally, about 66 percent of the population are Macedonian Orthodox,
about 30 percent are Muslim, about 1 percent are Roman Catholic, and about
3 percent are of other faiths (largely various Protestant denominations).
There is also a small Jewish community in Skopje.  Numerous foreign
missionaries are active and represent a very wide range of faiths.  Many of
these missionaries enter the country in connection with other work, often
charitable or medical.  Several Protestant missionary groups and Jehovah's
Witnesses are active.  Religious participation tends to focus on major
holidays or life cycle events.  

Section II.  Status of Religious Freedom

Legal/Policy Framework

The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the Government
generally respects this right in practice. However, the law places some
limits on religious practices including the establishment of places of
worship and the collection of contributions.  Despite the specific mention
of the Macedonian Orthodox Church in the Constitution, that Church does not
have official status.

The constitutional provision for religious freedom is refined further in
the 1997 Law on Religious Communities and Religious Groups.  This law
designates the Macedonian Orthodox Church, the Islamic community, and the
Roman Catholic Church as religious communities, and all other religions as
religious groups.  However, there is no legal differentiation between
religious communities and groups.  In early 1999, the Constitutional Court
struck down several provisions of the 1997 law, and in practice the
remaining provisions of the law are not enforced consistently.  A committee
has been formed to draft a new law.

The Government requires that religious groups be registered.  The 1997 Law
on Religious Communities and Religious Groups contained a number of
specific requirements for the registration of religious groups that were
struck down by the Constitutional Court in early 1999.  Consequently, there
was considerable confusion over which procedures still applied, and several
foreign religious bodies experienced delays in their efforts to register.
During the period covered by this report, the process remained slow and
cumbersome.  In practice, religious groups need to register to obtain
permits to build churches, and to request visas for foreigners and other
permits from the Government.  During 2000 several international Protestant
churches were granted legal registration, and several others were at some
stage in the process as of the end of the period covered by this report.
One Islamic group withdrew its 1998 application for registration but
continues to operate openly without taking further steps toward legal
registration.  The Government has not taken any enforcement actions against
the group. The Law on Religious Communities and Religious Groups also
requires that foreign nationals carrying out religious work and religious
rites be registered with the Government's Commission on Relations with the
Religious Communities.  The Government does not actively monitor new groups
or advise the public on them.

Restrictions on Religious Freedom

The Law on Religious Communities and Religious Groups places some
restrictions on the establishment of places of worship.  It provides that
religious rites and religious activities "shall take place at churches,
mosques, and other temples, and in gardens that are parts of those
facilities, at cemeteries, and at other facilities of the religious group."
 Provision is made for holding services in other places, provided that a
permit is obtained at least 15 days in advance.  No permit or permission is
required to perform religious rites in a private home.  The law also states
that religious activities "shall not violate the public peace and order,
and shall not disrespect the religious feelings and other freedoms and
rights" of persons who are not members of that particular religion.  The
Government does not actively enforce most of these provisions of the law
but acts upon complaints when they are received.

Several registered Protestant groups have been unable to obtain building
permits for new church facilities due to normal bureaucratic complications
that affect all new construction.  Churches and mosques often are built
without the appropriate building permits.  The Government has not taken any
actions against religious buildings that lack proper construction permits.

The Law on Religious Communities and Religious Groups also places some
limitations on the collection of contributions by restricting them only to
places where religious rites and activities are conducted.

Children below the age of 10 years may not receive religious instruction
without the permission of their parents or guardians.

The 1997 Law on Religious Communities and Religious Groups specifically
allows for foreign citizens to carry out religious activities, but only at
the request of a registered religious body.  Because many evangelical
Christian missionaries wish to conduct religious activities that are aimed
at the creation of new groups of believers, rather than at operating
through existing churches, some foreign missionaries have chosen to
disregard this portion of the law.  This approach has on occasion led to
difficulties for those missionaries, as the authorities have questioned
their actual reasons for entering the country, usually on tourist visas.
During the period covered by this report, several missionaries with
improper immigration status were able to obtain religious worker visas.
Several applications still were pending in June 2001.

The issue of restitution of previously state-owned religious properties has
not been resolved fully.  Many churches and mosques had extensive grounds
or other properties that were expropriated by the Communist regime.
Virtually all churches and mosques have been returned to the ownership of
the appropriate religious community, but that is not the case for many of
the other properties.  Often the claims are complicated by the fact that
the seized properties have changed hands many times or have been developed.
 In view of the country's very limited financial resources, it is unlikely
that religious communities can expect to regain much from the expropriated
properties.

Abuses of Religious Freedom

During the anti-Albanian riots in June 2001 in Bitola, during which rioters
vandalized the village mosque (see Section III), local police reportedly
did not take any actions to stop the attacks.  According to nongovernmental
observers, some witnesses claimed that a few police officers allegedly
participated in the riots.  The riots broke out after several Bitola police
officers were killed by ethnic Albanian extremists.  [P1]

There were no reports of religious prisoners or detainees.  

Forced Religious Conversion

There were no reports of forced religious conversion, including of minor
U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the United
States, or of the Government's refusal to allow such citizens to be
returned to the United States.

Section III.  Societal Attitudes

In 2000 both government policy and the generally amicable relationship
among the various religious communities contributed to the free practice of
religion.  However, the religious communities often reflect an ethnic
identity as well, and during 2001 societal tensions increased. 

During the period covered by this report, there has been an ongoing armed
conflict between the Government and armed ethnic Albanian extremists.
While religion has not been a focus of the conflict, both sides have
occasionally targeted religious buildings due to the linkage between
religion and ethnicity in the country.

The religious communities in the country often reflect an ethnic identity
as well.  Specifically, most Muslims are ethnic Albanians, while virtually
all Macedonian Orthodox believers are ethnic Macedonians.  Societal
discrimination is more likely to be based upon ethnic bias than upon
religious prejudice. 

During the period covered by this report, there were two significant
anti-Albanian riots in Bitola, in April and June, which displayed
anti-Muslim attitudes.  In June 2001, rioters vandalized the Bitola mosque,
breaking windows, setting fire to the mosque interior, and breaking open
several graves.  Rioters also sprayed swastikas and anti-Albanian graffiti
on the mosque.  

In the fall of 2000, local skinheads desecrated the Jewish cemetery in
Bitola.  The city government, in a gesture of tolerance, agreed to pay to
repair the damage.

The leaders of the long-established Orthodox, Muslim, and Roman Catholic
communities have better connections within the Government than do the
leaders of new churches, and there were some indications of an effort by
the established religions to use that influence to shut out newcomers.

Section IV.  U.S. Government Policy

During the period covered by this report, the U.S. Embassy initiated an
extensive dialog with the Government's Commission on Relations with the
Religious Communities, the office charged with the implementation of the
Law on Religious Communities and Religious Groups.  This contact was sought
after several American missionaries advised the Embassy that they were
having difficulties in their efforts to register their organizations or
workers. 

The Embassy also intervened successfully to help seven U.S. missionaries to
regularize their status in the country.  The missionaries had encountered
bureaucratic obstruction in their attempts to obtain religious worker visas.  

The leaders of the various religious communities in the country, as well as
the head of the Commission on Religious Communities and Religious Groups,
met with the Ambassador on several occasions during the period covered by
this report.  


_________________________________





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